This linguistic precision can also be seen in the works of Nezami Ganjavi³⁰, the celebrated Iranian mystical poet. From what I recall of Nezami’s collected works (Kulliyat), his poetry exhibits the same elegant and classical Persian tone as Ferdowsi’s, without containing a single verse in Azeri Turkish—even though Nezami lived about two centuries after Ferdowsi (Ferdowsi: c. 940 CE / Nezami: c. 1136 CE). This consistency reflects the deep love that Iran’s great mystic poets held for their homeland and its rich cultural identity.

The Samanid dynasty³¹—an Iranian ruling family that strongly valued Iran’s heritage and language—supported Ferdowsi’s efforts from the beginning. However, by the time the Shahnameh was nearing completion, political power had shifted to the Ghaznavids³² under Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, who came to rule Iran around 1556 APC (approximately 998 CE). This political change introduced a degree of historical ambiguity, which will be addressed in the following section.

The Shahnameh is an epic composed of roughly 50,000 couplets³³, making it one of the longest epic poems in world literature authored by a single poet. Written in modern Persian (New Persian), the Shahnameh chronicles the history of Iran from the era of historically unrecorded Kings and legends to the fall of the Sasanian Empire in the 7th century CE. The work is traditionally divided into three main sections³⁴:

Mythological Vision: The Eternal Struggle of Light and Darkness

The Shahnameh begins with a mythological worldview, presenting a cosmology and moral philosophy deeply rooted in ancient Iranian beliefs³⁵. It opens with the creation of the world and the reign of the first human king, Keyumars³⁶, a figure akin to a primordial monarch and civilizer. Through a symbolic lens, the early kings represent stages in the development of human civilization and the unfolding of divine order in the world.

Among the early tales is the story of Hushang³⁷, who, in a moment of triumph, discovers fire—bringing light and knowledge to humanity. He is followed by Jamshid, who establishes Nowruz³⁸, the Persian New Year, and ushers in a golden, divine era—an Ahuric age³⁹. However, Jamshid eventually falls into arrogance and self-glorification, and as a result, he loses his farr-e izadi (divine glory or divine sanction)⁴⁰, symbolizing the withdrawal of cosmic favor due to hubris.

In contrast to these bearers of light and order stands Zahhak, a tyrannical ruler whose shoulders sprout serpents that must be fed with human brains—a clear allegory of demonic corruption and the devouring of innocence. These narratives are not mere stories; they form a metaphysical structure depicting the eternal conflict between good and evil, light and darkness, order and chaos⁴¹.

Fereydun, the hero who defeats Zahhak, symbolizes the restoration of divine justice and the renewal of an Ahuric golden age for Iran and, symbolically, for the world at large. His victory is not just a political triumph—it is a spiritual cleansing that restores cosmic balance.

Historical Context and Scholarly Interpretations

In my view, this mythological era reflects a time prior to the rise of the Achaemenid Empire⁴². Although some scholars of the Shahnameh identify certain characters as mythologized versions of historical figures from early imperial Iran, the epic's intention is clearly to frame these events in the timeless language of mythology and moral philosophy.

For instance, based on Ferdowsi’s detailed descriptions of Fereydun and Kay Khosrow, some researchers have proposed that one of these figures could be a mythologized version of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty. This interpretation suggests that Ferdowsi, through poetic allegory, may have sought to embed the ideals of kingship and justice into the legendary prototypes of later historical rulers.

Regardless of the precise historical mappings, what remains central is that this portion of the Shahnameh conveys the Zoroastrian ethical paradigm⁴³: the world is a battleground between forces of light (asha) and darkness (druj), and human destiny hinges on moral courage, wisdom, and divine guidance.

The Heroic Vision: Light Wielded by Mortal Hands

The most celebrated and expansive portion of the Shahnameh is devoted to what scholars call the heroic cycle⁴⁴. In these epic narratives, Ferdowsi recounts the lives, valor, and moral struggles of men and women of integrity—brave, loyal, and noble warriors—who stand in eternal defiance against monstrous and demonic forces of darkness and destruction.

At the heart of this cycle stands Rostam⁴⁵, the greatest of all Iranian champions. Rostam is a larger-than-life hero who battles demons (divs), slays dragons, and aids kings in restoring justice and order. One of the most tragic tales in this section is the story of Rostam and Sohrab⁴⁶, where Rostam, unaware of Sohrab's identity, unknowingly kills his own son in battle. The depth of grief, irony, and poetic tragedy in this episode remains one of the most powerful moments in world literature.

Other notable figures in the heroic cycle include Esfandiyar, son of King Goshtasp, a prince bound by duty and a symbol of courage, faith, and devotion. His story is particularly significant for its tragic tone and moral complexity. Esfandiyar, out of obedience to his father, is compelled to confront Rostam, the nation's greatest hero. In a climactic battle, Rostam—guided by the mythical bird Simurgh⁴⁷—strikes Esfandiyar in the eyes, the only vulnerable part of his otherwise invincible body. This leads to his death, and ever since, the phrase “the eyes of Esfandiyar”⁴⁸ has become a Persian idiom symbolizing a person or state’s Achilles' heel—a fatal weakness.

Over time, the stories of the Shahnameh have infused Persian discourse with vivid metaphors. Expressions like “Rostam of the times,” “fatal poison,” “like Tahmineh,” “Zāl-like,” “Fereydun-like,” and “in the manner of the Simurgh” have entered the cultural lexicon, reflecting the deep moral and symbolic resonance of Ferdowsi’s characters⁴⁹.

Another luminous figure in the epic is Siyavash⁵⁰, who embodies purity, virtue, self-sacrifice, and restraint. He plays a pivotal role in the narrative and stands as a model of incorruptible morality. In a creative extension of this legend, I have personally composed a short story inspired by Siyavash’s tale, translated into Persian, English, and German, and published it alongside video clips via AOG’s platforms⁵¹. This project may be of interest to lovers of Persian literature and comparative mythology.

Importantly, Ferdowsi also gave voice to many powerful female characters. Notable among them is Rudabeh, mother of Rostam, whose love for Zāl  (Rostam’s father) is a tale of romantic nobility. Another is Tahmineh, Rostam’s wife and the mother of Sohrab, who plays a pivotal role in the story of their tragic son. Gordafarid, a courageous female warrior, disguises herself as a man and fights valiantly to defend the White Fortress against Sohrab⁵². Her bravery earns Sohrab’s admiration and highlights Ferdowsi’s recognition of women as agents of power, valor, and virtue in the epic landscape⁵³.

The Historical Vision: The Fall of an Empire, the Lament of a Nation

In the final section of the Shahnameh⁵⁴, Ferdowsi⁵⁵ shifts into a more historical register, recounting the realms of the Parthian (Ashkanian) and Sasanian dynasties⁵⁶. These chapters trace the lineage of kings, political events, and cultural shifts that led up to the Arab conquest of Persia and the fall of Yazdegerd III, the last Sasanian monarch⁵⁷.

Ferdowsi’s tone here becomes elegiac and mournful, reflecting a deep lament for the collapse of Iran’s imperial glory and cultural sovereignty. The narrative sorrowfully observes the loss of a world that once stood tall with wisdom, justice, and grandeur.

From a historical standpoint, one must acknowledge that Ferdowsi’s inclusion of semi-legendary or undocumented figures is not a flaw, but rather a unique strength of the Shahnameh⁵⁸. For much of Iranian history has been distorted, erased, or silenced—whether through conquest, ideological rewriting, or the passage of time. Ferdowsi’s epic thus serves not merely as a literary treasure, but as a historical corrective, a repository of cultural memory that resists erasure⁵⁹.

This subject—the buried achievements of ancient Iran and the deliberate obscuring of its past—will be examined in the final section of this essay titled “The Achievements of the Iranians, Lost in the Dust of Darkened History.”

The Rhythm of the Shahnameh: Form, Function, and the Pulse of Heroism

The Shahnameh is composed in the poetic form of masnavi and in the motaqāreb meter⁶⁰—a meter especially well-suited to long-form epic narratives. In the masnavi structure, each couplet possesses its own independent rhyme; that is, the two hemistichs (lines) of each verse rhyme only with each other, not with surrounding verses. This structure offers Ferdowsi significant stylistic flexibility, particularly valuable when composing a work of over 50,000 lines.

The motaqāreb meter—a powerful, rhythmic, and consistent beat—amplifies the heroic and grandiose tone of the epic. When this meter is combined with lofty and martial vocabulary, it evokes a profound sense of majesty, struggle, and triumph⁶¹.

Cho Irān nabāshad, tan-e man mabād          Bar in būm o bar zendeh yektan mabād
  “If there is no Iran, may my body not live

May not one soul remain on this soil.”⁶²

This meter mimics the cadence of war drums and thus stirs the soul as if preparing it for an epic confrontation. It is not only resonant and commanding but also fluid and memorable, which made it ideal for oral performance and memorization—especially by the naqqāls (traditional storytellers) in Persian teahouses⁶³.

Another benefit of the masnavi form in combination with the motaqāreb meter is its linguistic flexibility. Since rhymes do not extend across multiple couplets, the poet is not constrained by repetitive rhyme patterns, allowing Ferdowsi a greater range in word choice and narrative flow.

" These verses from the Shahnameh have been approximately translated into English”

(Kherad chashm-e jān ast chon bengari      To bī chashm-e shādān jahān naspari)
  "Look deeply, and you’ll see, wisdom is the mind’s true eye

Without it, a joyful life is out of reach."

(Nakhost āfarinesh kherad rā shenās          Negahbān-e jān ast o ān-e seh pās)

Among all creations, first recognize wisdom

which is the guardian of your soul, eyes, ears, and tongue.

The meter’s rhythmic potency is especially apparent during intense narrative arcs—such as the battle between Rostam and Sohrab—when the tempo becomes fast-paced and pounding⁶⁴:

(Ze jāy andar āmad cho ātash Qobād               Bejonbīd lashkar cho daryā ze bād)

Qaboos rose with fiery zeal,

and his army moved like the sea stirred by the wind.

  (Barāmad khoroshidan-e dār o kūb                 Derakhshidan-e khanjar o zakhm-e chub)

The sound of the woodpecker's roar arose

(and) the gleam of daggers and the movement of clubs appeared

Most Shahnameh scholars agree that Ferdowsi deliberately used a highly purified form of Persian, with minimal inclusion of Arabic vocabulary⁶⁵. This linguistic choice is often seen as a conscious effort to revive and preserve the Persian language—what we now refer to as Modern Persian (Parsi-ye nowīn). In doing so, Ferdowsi not only composed an epic, but forged a linguistic-cultural foundation that would influence Persianate societies for generations.

Modern linguists and historians often connect the Shahnameh's language to the cultural sphere of Greater Khorasan, where Ferdowsi was born, and which remained a stronghold of Persian identity despite centuries of foreign domination⁶⁶. Importantly, Ferdowsi maintained this linguistic heritage without allowing the tone of the Shahnameh to be influenced by "Dari Persian".

Two years before composing this article, I published a two‑part study entitled “The Historical Influence of Iranians on the Indian Subcontinent” in the Persian‑language section of the Research Institute Andishe Online Germany (AOG) website. In that study, I examined in depth the cultural and linguistic impact of Persian in South Asia, providing a comprehensive analysis of the region’s long‑standing historical connections with Iran.

Historical and Cultural Significance of the Shahnameh

The Shahnameh holds a pivotal place in the preservation of Persian language and culture, particularly during a historical period when Arabic had become the dominant linguistic and cultural force in much of the Iranian plateau. By composing his epic entirely in Persian, Ferdowsi revived the literary prestige of the ancient Iranian tongue, paving the way for a renewed sense of national and cultural identity rooted in a pre-Islamic past.

Through its poetic elegance and epic narratives, the Shahnameh rekindled a cultural memory that extended far beyond mere storytelling. It restored a sense of continuity with Iran's Zoroastrian, mythic, and royal heritage, reinvigorating a language that had been marginalized under centuries of Arab influence. The Shahnameh gave voice to a distinctly Iranian worldview, one rich in moral philosophy, heroic ideals, and historical consciousness.

The epic has served as an enduring source of inspiration for poets, painters, and writers throughout the Persian-speaking world and beyond. Its stories have been adapted into miniatures, oral performances, theatrical renditions, and even modern cinema, attesting to its lasting popularity and cultural resonance. For instance, scholars believe that works like Garshasp-nama by Asadi Tusi were directly influenced by Ferdowsi’s masterpiece⁶⁷.

The influence of the Shahnameh was not limited to Iran. It reached deep into Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and even the Ottoman Empire, leaving a lasting mark on artistic and literary traditions in those regions. Notable examples include:

• The Shahnameh of Akbar: Commissioned in the 21st–22nd century APC. (corresponding to the 16th century C.E.), this magnificent illustrated manuscript was created in the court of Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great. Among the most exquisitely illustrated Persian manuscripts ever produced, it brought together Persian and Indian artists, merging Persian miniature aesthetics with indigenous Mughal styles. Akbar reportedly commissioned several versions of the Shahnameh, but the most celebrated among them came to be known as the Akbari Shahnameh⁶⁸.
• Court painters such as Bishan Das and Sanwalah: These master artists flourished in the Mughal court of Emperor Jahangir (22nd–23rd century APC, i.e., 17th century C.E.). Their paintings—featuring iconic scenes such as Rostam and Sohrab or Siavash and Sudabeh—demonstrate a profound fusion of Persian epic themes with Indian visual storytelling⁶⁹.
• The Ottoman Shahnameh: A significant translation and adaptation of Ferdowsi’s work into Ottoman Turkish, this version featured Ottoman-style illustrations and was circulated in the royal courts. Scholars argue that Iranian mythological figures deeply influenced Turkish literature and identity, often blending with local legends and heroes. This version is now housed in the Topkapi Palace Library in Istanbul⁷⁰.

In all these instances, the Shahnameh transcended linguistic and geographic boundaries, establishing itself not just as a literary monument, but as a transcultural epic whose echoes can be found across a broad swath of the Eastern Islamic world.

Linguistic and Cultural Impact of the Shahnameh

There is a widely accepted belief among scholars that Ferdowsi’s deliberate use of New Persian in the Shahnameh was a conscious act aimed at reviving and standardizing the Persian language in the aftermath of the Arab conquest of Iran. As reflected in the text, Ferdowsi took great care to avoid incorporating Arabic vocabulary, aiming to preserve the linguistic purity of Persian. He also deliberately refrained from mixing it with the regional Persian spoken in Greater Khorasan, commonly referred to as "Dari Persian"⁷¹.

This deliberate linguistic strategy contributed significantly to the Shahnameh’s endurance as a literary and cultural pillar of Iranian identity. It established a pure linguistic model that became a symbol of national authenticity, influencing later dynasties such as the Safavids and Qajars⁷². However, the Shahnameh’s linguistic and cultural influence reached its zenith during the era of Pahlavi nationalism under Reza Shah  and Mohammad Reza Shah, who launched extensive cultural campaigns to revive and institutionalize Iran’s pre-Islamic heritage. These included the Millennial Celebrations of Ferdowsi, restoration of his mausoleum, and widespread cultural promotion of his legacy⁷³.

Repeatedly referred to as the cornerstone of Iranian identity, the Shahnameh was not merely a literary achievement but an act of cultural resistance. Composed in New Persian, it counteracted the Arabization of the region that had followed the 7th-century Islamic conquest. This conscious effort to preserve cultural and linguistic integrity helped ensure the survival of Iran’s national identity, setting it apart from other regions subjected to similar pressures⁷⁴.

Unlike Iran, many nations faced with Arab expansion—such as Egypt, Syria, Libya, and various other African and Asian territories—underwent significant linguistic and cultural erosion, often abandoning their native tongues in favor of Arabic. While remnants of Aramaic or its offshoot, Syriac, are still spoken in limited religious or ethnic communities in parts of modern Iraq and Syria, their presence is marginal and symbolic at best⁷⁵.

Thanks to Ferdowsi’s monumental effort, Persians retained not only their language but also their cultural memory and collective identity. This preservation has allowed Iran to maintain a continuity of historical consciousness and literary tradition unmatched by many other regions similarly conquered.

Global Influences of the Shahnameh

A particularly fascinating aspect of the Shahnameh’s legacy is its role as a source of inspiration for numerous illustrated manuscripts. One of the most notable among these is the Florence Manuscript, considered the oldest known illustrated version of the Shahnameh⁷⁶. Such manuscripts are now housed in prestigious institutions such as the British Library, the Bibliothèque nationale de France, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, where they are celebrated as cultural treasures combining Persian literature and visual artistry⁷⁷.

These illustrated versions are not only valuable to Shahnameh enthusiasts but also serve as essential resources for scholars studying art history, manuscript production, calligraphy, and Persian miniature painting. The illustrations reflect stylistic influences from various Persian artistic schools—including those of Herat, Tabriz, Shiraz, and Isfahan—and showcase the aesthetic evolution of Iranian art across centuries⁷⁸.

Some of the most prominent illustrated manuscripts of the Shahnameh include:

• The Florence Shahnameh  (Ms. Pers. 1): Estimated to have been completed between 1873 and 1885 APC (717–725 AH / 1317–1325 CE), this manuscript is the oldest known illustrated copy of the Shahnameh. Preserved at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, it represents both a literary and visual triumph. Its finely detailed illustrations highlight the importance of Ferdowsi’s epic even centuries after its composition, suggesting that both the poet and his work were already known and esteemed in parts of Europe by that time⁷⁹.

• The Baysonghor Shahnameh  (1988  APC / 833 AH / 1430 CE): Commissioned by Baysonghor Mirza, son of Shahrukh of the Timurid dynasty, this manuscript was produced in Herat, a major cultural hub of Iran. While the main portion is housed at the British Library (MS. Or. 757), fragments exist in other collections. In 2569 APC (2011 CE  / 1390 SH), UNESCO added this version to the Memory of the World Register, recognizing its cultural and historical significance⁸⁰.

• The Demotte Shahnameh (Great Ilkhanid Shahnameh): Created around 1888 APC (ca. 1330 CE), this manuscript is attributed to the Tabriz school and is a masterpiece of Ilkhanid-era Persian illustration. Acquired by French art dealer Georges Joseph Demotte in the early 20th century (ca. 1910–1912 CE), it was unfortunately disassembled and sold in individual pages, many of which are now scattered across museums worldwide⁸¹.

• The Tahmasp Shahnameh: This opulent manuscript was commissioned by Shah Tahmasp of the Safavid dynasty between 2082 and 2093 APC (1524–1535 CE). It represents a peak of the Tabriz school of miniature painting and remains one of the most celebrated examples of Persian illustrated literature⁸².

• Later Manuscripts: Other notable versions include the Qavam al-Dowleh Shahnameh from the Qajar era, and the Abu Taher Hossein Shahnameh, one of the earliest known copies. Additionally, Shahnameh manuscripts were produced in the courts of Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, demonstrating the extensive influence of Ferdowsi’s work across cultures and regions⁸³.

As previously mentioned, many of these exquisite illustrations are now preserved in world-renowned museums, including the Louvre, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.⁸⁴

Since the overarching purpose of this article is to draw a literary comparison between Ferdowsi and Shakespeare, this overview of Ferdowsi’s legacy will suffice. A thorough investigation of the poet’s life and the many dimensions of his magnum opus would undoubtedly require a comprehensive monograph rather than a single article⁸⁵.

A Controversial Point

"It is important to note that this section may appear somewhat complex to English readers, as it deals with a verse from the epic poem Shahnameh. Translating and interpreting such poetry into non-Persian languages is inherently limited and can never fully capture its original depth and nuance."

At the end of this section, I feel it is important to point out a very tangible example of misinterpretation in the Shahnameh⁸⁶. Consider the following line:

"Art is solely among Iranians."

This verse, often attributed to Ferdowsi⁸⁷, is commonly understood by the public in the following manner: "Art is found only among Iranians, and not others." This misinterpretation has unfortunately spread widely among us Iranians. However, the original line, as it appears in the Shahnameh and as published on the Ganjoor website⁸⁸, reads as follows:

"Art flows deeply from the Iranians  They fear no beast, no matter how fierce.

"If this verse has indeed appeared in this form from the beginning in the Shahnameh, there is only one possibility: we must align ourselves with credible Iranian Shahnameh scholars and accept that this line is a quote attributed to Bahram Gur⁸⁹, the Sassanian king, and not a personal opinion of Ferdowsi. Yet, this theory does not sit well with me, as the word "too"⁹⁰ in the line "Art too is from Iranians" can cause some confusion for the following reasons:

1. Contradiction with the conjunction "and": The word "too" carries the meaning of "and likewise", implying emphasis on the fact that the action has occurred elsewhere too. In this case, the sentence would not make sense unless we overlook the conjunction "and" and interpret "too" not as "and likewise" but as "very much", meaning: "Art is also abundant among Iranians."
2. Alternative Interpretation: If we do not wish to alter the structure of this verse, we might accept that the use of "too" emphasizes the presence of other virtues. For example, "Keyumars has a shield, a spear, and also many arrows for his bow"⁹¹ (arrows are also present among Keyumars, and in abundance). In this case, the translation of the verse would be: "Art, like other virtues, such as craftsmanship⁹², bravery⁹³, and statecraft⁹⁴, is abundant among Iranians." This interpretation resolves the issue.

However, the popularized later versions, "Art is solely among Iranians," which have become widespread in public discourse⁹⁵, are inaccurate and misleading, as their meaning suggests that no other group, nation, or people possesses art. This incorrect and offensive idea could never have originated from a great mind like Ferdowsi’s. To provide readers of this study a better understanding of the narrative context of this controversial verse, I will offer a brief summary of it:

Literary and Historical Context:

This verse is discussed in the context of the reign of Bahram V (Bahram Gur)⁹⁶, the fifteenth monarch of the Sassanian dynasty and the fifth ruler bearing the name Bahram, as recounted in the Shahnameh. The story is summarized as follows:
Bahram Gur, the son of Yazdegerd I⁹⁷, ruled in the eleventh century APC (5th century CE)⁹⁸. During a trip to India, he married the daughter of Shangal⁹⁹, the king of India. In part of the narrative, Bahram encounters the Khagan of China¹⁰⁰, where he emphasizes the superiority of Iranian art, bravery, and combat skills. The line

"Art, too, belongs much to the Iranian kind      

They count the raging enemy as nothing in their mind."

reflects this sentiment. The first part of the verse refers to the distinctiveness of Iranian art, while the second part, with the reference to the rhinoceros, metaphorically alludes to the unmatched bravery of the Iranians, who disregard even the fiercest enemies, symbolized by the enraged rhinoceros¹⁰¹.

Considering the original narrative and the analysis presented, I interpret the meaning of this controversial verse as follows:

  "Along with other virtues  (such as bravery and courage, as suggested by the second line), art is found in abundance among Iranians. And Iranians are so valiant that they fear not even the wildest beasts, like the enraged rhinoceros, whom they dismiss as nothing."

We will conclude this section with a statement from the distinguished American scholar and translator, Wheeler M. Thackston¹⁰²:

"The Shahnameh is a heroic lesson as vast as the epic itself; its poetry alone is enough to reveal the spirit and soul of the Iranians."

Rumors Surrounding Ferdowsi

Ferdowsi's Discontent with Mahmud of Ghazni

Some unverifiable research suggests that Ferdowsi expected a large reward from Mahmud of Ghazni for his Shahnameh, but instead of receiving 60,000 dinars¹⁰³, he only received 20,000 dirhams¹⁰⁴ (a lesser amount), which caused his dissatisfaction. In response, it is said that Ferdowsi composed a satirical poem¹⁰⁵ against Mahmud, which allegedly appears in some ancient versions¹⁰⁶ of the Shahnameh. However, this claim is something I cannot verify.

For instance, two of the six lines related to this issue, as mentioned in the Chahar Maqale¹⁰⁶ (Four Discourses)¹⁰⁷ by Aruzi¹⁰⁸, read:

"O King Mahmud, the conqueror

If you fear no one, you should fear God."

"If indeed the world is under your command        

Then tell me, why should these foolish words be said?"

From other unreliable sources:

"The general gave me nothing but thanks
So I returned no more respect."

"If the king were truly noble-born,
Would I not be honored in this tale?"

"Better to stay far from Mahmud's court
My name won't live among the thankless there."

While it is possible that Mahmud may not have been overly generous, the idea that Ferdowsi would resort to such satire over material reward—especially in his later years—is not convincing to me, unless other events took place that remain buried in history.

I fundamentally do not believe that Ferdowsi completed this monumental work with the expectation of financial compensation. When he wrote the Shahnameh, the Samanids¹⁰⁹ were still in power, and there is no clear evidence of any contractual agreement between Ferdowsi and them. To support this, three examples are worth considering:

1. The book In Praise of Sultan Mahmud¹¹⁰ by Aiden Sinclair¹¹¹ presents a relatively positive portrayal of Mahmud and shows Ferdowsi depicting him as a wise and just ruler. This undermines the narrative of Ferdowsi’s bitterness.
2. Some argue that ideological differences may have caused Mahmud to neglect the Shahnameh. Mahmud was Sunni¹¹² and Turkic¹¹³, whereas Ferdowsi emphasized Persian national heritage and Zoroastrian¹¹⁴ elements. This cultural and ideological gap could have lessened Mahmud’s interest in the work.
3. Scholars such as Abolfazl Khatibi¹¹⁵, in his book Did Ferdowsi Satirize Mahmud of Ghazni?¹¹⁶, question the authenticity of these verses. I side with those who argue these poems may have been attributed to Ferdowsi after his death.

According to some traditions, Mahmud’s reward reached Tus¹¹⁷ only after Ferdowsi had died. His daughter allegedly rejected the gift, declaring the Shahnameh had become immortal without royal favor. Other versions claim that the money was used to build or restore a caravanserai¹¹⁸ called Rabat Chah¹¹⁹ between Merv¹²⁰ and Tus as a tribute to Ferdowsi’s legacy.

Until reliable historical documentation becomes available, these tales must be considered part of Iranian oral and folkloric tradition¹²¹—interesting, but not definitive.

2. Shakespeare and His Works

Birth and Family
William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. His father, John Shakespeare, was a successful glove maker and local official, while his mother, Mary Arden, came from a landowning family (Wells, n.d.; historical records from Stratford-upon-Avon). Shakespeare’s upbringing in this relatively prosperous household provided him with a foundation that later influenced his literary sensibilities.

Education and Early Life
Shakespeare likely attended the King’s New School in Stratford, where he received a strong education in Latin and classical literature. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children (Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.). By the late 1580s, he had moved to London and embarked on a professional journey as both actor and playwright (Bryson, 2007).

Literary Career
Shakespeare’s fame rose rapidly in the 1590s. He joined the acting company "Lord Chamberlain’s Men," which later became "The King’s Men" under royal patronage. His major plays include Hamlet (c. 1600), King Lear (c. 1605), and A Midsummer Night’s Dream (c. 1595). In addition to his plays, he wrote 154 sonnets, now considered masterpieces of English poetry (Gurr, n.d.; Oxford University Press, 2005).

Relationship with the Court
Shakespeare benefited from the support of both Queen Elizabeth I and King James I. His acting troupe performed frequently at court, and several of his plays were directly staged for royal audiences (Encyclopedia of English Literary History, n.d.).

Death and Legacy
William Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616, in his hometown of Stratford-upon-Avon and was buried in the Holy Trinity Church. His influence on the English language and literature is unmatched; his works continue to be studied and performed globally (Bryson, 2007; Stratford historical records).

Timeless Works of Shakespeare

Tragedies

• Hamlet: This iconic tragedy follows the Danish prince Hamlet, who seeks revenge for his father’s murder after an encounter with his ghost. The play explores madness, betrayal, and mortality (Greenblatt, 2015).
• King Lear: Lear’s decision to divide his kingdom among his daughters leads to betrayal and madness. It is considered one of Shakespeare’s most profound meditations on power and family (Wells & Taylor, 2005).
• Macbeth: A Scottish general, spurred by prophecy and ambition, kills the king and suffers a downward spiral into guilt and ruin (Wells, 2017).
• Othello: A tragic tale of jealousy and manipulation, in which a Moorish general is deceived into murdering his innocent wife (de Grazia & Wells, 2001).
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Comedies

• A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Set in a magical forest, this romantic comedy intertwines themes of illusion, love, and transformation (Greenblatt, 2015).
• The Merchant of Venice: A complex comedy centered around a legal bond and the tension between justice and mercy, with strong undertones of religious and cultural prejudice (Van Es, 2016).
• As You Like It: In this pastoral comedy, themes of gender, identity, and love are explored through characters who flee to the Forest of Arden (Wells & Taylor, 2005).
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History Plays

• Richard III: This historical play depicts the Machiavellian rise and fall of one of England’s most notorious monarchs (Hoenselaars, 2004).
• Henry V: Celebrates the unity and nationalism of England through the heroic leadership of King Henry at the Battle of Agincourt (Hattaway, 2002).

Poetry

• Sonnets: Shakespeare’s 154 sonnets cover themes such as beauty, love, time, and mortality. They are generally divided into two major sequences: those addressed to a young man and those to a mysterious “Dark Lady” (Schiffer, 2000).

End of Part One
Part Two